Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization located in what is Pakistan and northwest India today, on the fertile flood plain of the Indus River and its vicinity. Evidence of religious practices in this area date back approximately to 5500 BCE.Farming settlements began around 4000 BCE and around 3000 BCE there appeared the first signs of urbanization. By 2600 BCE, dozens of towns and cities had been established, and between 2500 and 2000 BCE the Indus Valley Civilization was at its peak.

THE LIFE OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Two cities, in particular, have been excavated at the sites of Mohenjo-Daro on the lower Indus, and at Harappa, further upstream. The evidence suggests they had a highly developed city life; many houses had wells and bathrooms as well as an elaborate underground drainage system. The social conditions of the citizens were comparable to those in Sumeria and superior to the contemporary Babylonians and Egyptians. These cities display a well-planned urbanization system.

There is evidence of some level of contact between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Near East. Commercial, religious, and artistic connections have been recorded in Sumerian documents, where the Indus valley people are referred to as Meluhhaites and the Indus valley is called Meluhha. The following account has been dated to about 2000 BCE: "The Meluhhaites, the men of the black land, bring to Naram-Sin of Agade all kind of exotic wares." (Haywood, p. 76, The Curse of Agade)

The Indus Civilization had a writing system which today still remains a mystery: all attempts to decipher it have failed. This is one of the reasons why the Indus Valley Civilization is one of the least known of the important early civilizations of antiquity. Examples of this writing system have been found in pottery, amulets, carved stamp seals, and even in weights and copper tablets.

Another point of debate is the nature of the relationship between these cities. Whether they were independent city-states or part of a larger kingdom is not entirely clear. Because the writing of the Indus people remains undeciphered and neither sculptures of rulers nor depictions of battles and military campaigns have been found, evidence pointing in either direction is not conclusive.

Extent of the civilization

• Centered along the Indus
• Extended into Ghaggar-Hakra and Ganga-Yamuna river valleys
• Encompassed almost entire Pakistan, western India, southeastern Afghanistan and eastern Iran
• Isolated colonies as far away as Turkmenistan
• Coastal sites: Sutkagan Dor (Baluchistan), Lothal (Gujarat)
• Easternmost site: Alamgirpur (near Delhi)
• Island site: Dholavira
• Over 500 sites found in the Ghaggar-Hakra river bed, around 100 along the Indus
• First discovery (accidental): village called Brahminabad between Karachi and Lahore (1856)
• First excavated site: Harappa, by Sir J.H. Marshall (1921-22)
• Latest discovery: Sep 2009, rock engravings indicating Indus Valley culture found in Edakkal caves in Wayanad district of Kerala

Periodisation

Date Range	Phase	Major sites	Important attributes
7000 – 3300 BC	Mehrgarh	Mehrgarh	Cultivation of wheat and barley Proto-dentistry
3300 – 2600 BC	Early Harappan	Balakot Amri Hakra Kot Diji	Arts and crafts
2600 – 1900 BC	Mature Harappan	Harappa Mohenjo-Daro Kalibangan Dholavira Lothal Rupar	Cultivation of peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton Domestication of animals Large urban centres with urban planning Dockyards, granaries, warehouses System of weights and measures in the ratio 4:2:1 Stringed musical instruments Bullock carts Maritime trade with Mesopotamia Burial of the dead
1900-1300 BC	Late Harappan	Harappa	Cremation of the dead Rice becomes main crop Expansion to the east Breakdown of trade Possibly identified with Vedic period

Vedic Period

Sapta Sindhu

River	Vedic Name
Indus	Sindhu
Ghaggar-Hakra	Saraswati
Sutlej	Sutudri
Beas	Vipasha
Jhelum	Vitasta
Ravi	Parusni
Chenab	Asikini

Extent and Age

• Began 2nd millenium BCE, ended around 600 BCE
• Centered around northern and northwestern parts of Indian subcontinent
• Late vedic period marked by rise of Mahajanapadas
• Succeeded by Mauryan Empire

Political Structure

• Polity (rashtra) divided into jana, vis, grama
• Governed by a king, elected from a restricted group of royals. King aided by priest and army chief
• King governed with consent of people
• Two types of assemblies: gana, sabha
  

Society and Economy

• Rigid concept of varna and rules of marriage
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas held higher status than Vaishyas and Shudras
• Early vedic period: Prominence of agriculture, economy based on barter system
• Late vedic period: Agriculture becomes dominant economic activity, long distance trade becomes important

Four Vedas

• Together comprise the Samhitas
• Part of sruti literature (i.e. heard)
• Each Veda contains metrical Mantra and prose Brahmana parts
• Rig Veda contains verses of praise in metre for loud recitation, Yajur Veda prose for recitation at sacrifices, Sama Veda in metre for singing at Soma ceremonies, Atharva Veda
• spells and incantations set in metre and prose

Brahmanas

• Give details and directions for using Mantras at ceremonies, explains legends connected with Mantras and rituals
• Contained as part of the Vedas
• Total of 19 Brahmanas: 2 associated with Rig Veda, 6 with Yajur Veda, 10 with Sama Veda, 1 with Atharva Veda
• Brahmanas led to development of later Hindu philosophy, science, astronomy, linguistics

Aranyakas

• Part of sruti literature
• Considered “wilderness books” givng details of life in the forest
• Similar to Brahmanas: detail proper performance of rituals, especially dangerous ones to be performed in the forest
• Total of 8 Aranyakas
• Surya Namaskara detailed in Taittiriya Aranyaka

Upanishads

• Composed towards the end of the Vedic period
• Constitute core teachings of Vedanta
• Greatly influence Hindu philosophy. Describe Brahman and Atman
• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the oldest
• Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan) translated 50 Upanishads into Persian
• Upanishads collectively considered one of the 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written

DECLINE OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

By 1800 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization saw the beginning of their decline: Writing started to disappear, standardized weights and measures used for trade and taxation purposes fell out of use, the connection with the Near East was interrupted, and some cities were gradually abandoned. The reasons for this decline are not entirely clear, but it is believed that the drying up of the Saraswati River, a process which had begun around 1900 BCE, was the main cause. Other experts speak of a great flood in the area. Either event would have had catastrophic effects on agricultural activity, making the economy no longer sustainable and breaking the civic order of the cities.

Around 1500 BCE, a large group of nomadic cattle-herders, the Aryans, migrated into the region from central Asia. The Aryans crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and came in contact with the Indus Valley Civilization. This was a large migration and used to be seen as an invasion, which was thought to be the reason for the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, but this hypothesis is not unanimously accepted today. 

Thus, the Indus Valley Civilization came to an end. Over the course of several centuries, the Aryans gradually settled down and took up agriculture. The language brought by the Aryans gained supremacy over the local languages: the origin of the most widely spoken languages today in south Asia goes back to the Aryans, who introduced the Indo-European languages into the Indian subcontinent. 

Other features of modern Indian society, such as religious practices and caste division, can also be traced back to the times of the Aryan migrations. Many pre-Aryan customs still survive in India today. Evidence supporting this claim includes: the continuity of pre-Aryan traditions; practices by many sectors of Indian society; and also the possibility that some major gods of the Hindu pantheon actually originated during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization and were kept "alive" by the original inhabitants through the centuries.