Mahajanapadas

A Mahājanapada (literally "great realm", from maha, "great", and janapada "foothold of a tribe", "country") is one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth centuries BCE to fourth centuries CE.

Ancient Buddhist texts like the Anguttar Nikaya make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.

The 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. Archaeologically, this period corresponds in part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.

These 16 Mahajanapads that stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh in the sixth century B.C.E., prior to and during the rise of Buddhism in India.

They represent a transition from a semi-nomadic tribal society to an agrarian-based society with a vast network of trade and a highly-organized political structure. Many of these “kingdoms” functioned as republics governed by a general assembly and a council of elders led by an elected “king consul.”

The Mahajanapadas are the historical context of the Sanskrit epics, such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as Puranic literature (the itihasa).

ORIGIN

The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). Early Vedic texts speak of several Janas, or tribes, of Aryans, organized as semi-nomadic tribal states, fighting among themselves and with other non-Aryan tribes for cattle, sheep and green pastures.

The fact that Janapada is derived fromJana suggests the taking of land by a Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini.

In the Panini grammar, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each Janapada was named after the Kshatriya tribe (or Kshatriya Jana) who had settled there.

Tribal identity was more significant than geographical location in defining the territory of a Janapada, and the sparsity of the population made specific boundary lines unimportant. Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighboring kingdoms, as was the case between the northern and southern Panchala and between the western (Pandava's Kingdom) and eastern (Kaurava's Kingdom) Kuru. Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed boundaries, such as the Naimisha Forest between Panchala and Kosala kingdoms. Mountain ranges like Himalaya, Vindhya and Sahya also formed boundaries.

Formation of States:

The tribal political organisation of the Rig Vedic phase gave way to the rise of territorial state towards the end of the Vedic period.

But the territorial idea was gradually strengthened in the sixth century B.C. with the rise of large state with towns as their seats of power.

Permanent settlement in a particular area gave a geographical identity to a tribe or a group of tribes and subsequently this identity was given concrete shape in the possession of the area, which was generally named after the tribe. To maintain this possession required political organization, either as a republic or a monarchy.

From the sixth century B.C. onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and West­ern Bihar, as evidenced from excavations at Raj ghat and Chirand, led to the formation of large territorial states which were better equipped militarily and in which warrior class played the main role.

New agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce a good amount of surplus which not only met the needs of the ruling class but also supported numerous towns. Towns came into existence as centres of industry and trade. Some such as Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Kashi and Pataliputra were of substantial importance to the economy of the Ganges plains.

Others such as Vaishali, Ujjain, Taxila and the port of Bharukachchha (Broach) had a wider economic reach. A passage from Panini, makes it clear that the people owed their allegiance to the Janapada (territory) to which they belonged and not to the Jana or the tribe to which they belonged.

The Mahajanapadas (Monarchies and Republics):

In the post-Vedic period, the entire northern territory mostly situated north of the Vindhyas and extending from the North-West frontier to Bihar was divided into sixteen states called Sodasha Mahajanapadas. These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republican in character.

Whereas the monarchies were concentrated in the Gangetic Plains, the republics were ranged round the north­ern periphery of these kingdoms-in the foothills of the Himalayas and just south of these, and in north-western India in modern Punjab.

The Buddhist literature, particularly the Anguttara Nikaya lists the sixteen mahajanapadas given as – Gandhara, Kamboja, Assaka, Vatsa, Avanti, Surasena, Chedi, Malla, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Vajji, Anga, Kosala and Magadha.

Another Buddhist text written in Pali, Digha Nikaya ("Collection of Long Discourses"), mentions only first 12 Mahajanapadas in this list and omits the last four.

The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives a slightly different list of 16 Mahajanapadas: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha and Sambhuttara. It is evident that the author of Bhagvati is only interested in the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south, since the nations from Uttarapatha, like the Kamboja and Gandhara, are omitted.

Monarchies:

1. Kashi:

With its capital as Banaras, Kashi was at first the most powerful among the sixteen states and perhaps played an important part in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy. Eventually it had to submit to the power of Kosala and later annexed by Ajatasatru to Magadha.

2. Kosala:

It embraced the area occupied by eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its capital at Shravasti, which is identical with Sahet – Mahet in the borders of Gonda and Bahraich districts in Uttar Pradesh. Kosala was bounded on the west by the river Gomati, on the south by the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai), on the east by the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it from Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.

Ayodhya, Saketa and Shravasti were three impor­tant Kosalan cities. Prasenjit, the Kosalan king was the contemporary of king Bimbisara and king Ajatasatru of Magadha. Prasenjit’s sister was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha, and Kashi was given to her as dowry. However, a dispute with Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara through another wife, soon led to discord. Ajatasatru put his father to death whose wife, sister of Prasenjit, died due to grief. Prasenjit, in retaliation, confiscated Kasi.

A war broke out with varying results in favour of both sides. However, the conflict finally ended with reconciliation. Prasenjit’s daughter Vajjira was married to Ajatasatru and Kashi was given as dowry to the bride. Though Prasenjit did not embrace Buddhism, one of the Bharhut sculptures highlights cordiality between Prasenjit and Buddha. Finally it was annexed by Magadha during Ajatasatru’s reign after the death of Prasenjit.

3. Anga:

Anga in the east of Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Monghyr and Bagalpur. Its capital Champa, situated on the bank of the river of the same name, was noted for its wealth and commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.

4. Magadha:

Between Anga and Vatsa there lay the kingdom of Magadha, corresponding to modern Patna and Gaya districts, bounded on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the Vindhya outcrop and on the east by the river Champa. Rajagriha or Girivraja, rendered impregnable by a perimeter of five hills, was the Magadhan capital. The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came into prominence under Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.

5. Vatsa:

The Vatsa country had a monarchical form of government. Its capital was Kausambi (identified with the village of Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad. Kausambi, a very prosperous city was the most important entre pot of goods and passengers from the south and the west. Udayana, the ruler of this country in the sixth century B.C. had to struggle against king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king Pradyota of Avanti.

Udayana entered into a matrimonial alliance with the king of Magadha. The ruler of Avanti invaded Kausambi and as he was unsuccessful, he had to marry his daughter to Udayana. To begin with, Udayana was op­posed to Ruddhism, but later on he became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. Later, during the reign of Palaka, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

6. Avanti:

The state of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa. The river Vetravati divided Avanti into north and south. Terrirorially, it was a big kingdom and its capital was Ujjayini or modern Ujjain. The ruler of Avanti in the time of Buddha was Chanda Pradyota. He was a contemporary of Udayana of Kausambi. Although he was given the nickname of Chanda on account of his ferocity, he became a convert to Buddhism.

Avanti became a very important centre of Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was finally annexed to Magadhan Empire by Sishunaga.

7. Gandhara:

The state of Gandhara roughly corresponded to modern Kashmir and extended upto the Kabul valley. Its capital was Taxila which was a famous seat of learning where scholars came from all over the world. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara King Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in Magadha and went on foot to see the Buddha. Later it formed the twentieth province of the Achaemenid Empire (Persian) according to the Greek historian, Herodotus.

8. Kamboja:

It was the country adjoining Gandhara in the extreme North-West with Dwarka as its capital. A little before 530 B.C. Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of Persia, crossed the Hindukush and received tributes from the people of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-Indus area. During Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed from a monarchy to a republic.

9. Matsya:

The Matsyas were to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna. The Matsya country corresponded roughly to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan.

10. Kurus:

The Kuru country roughly corresponded to the modern Delhi and the adjoining doab region. It was the most important kingdom of the later Vedic period but during the sixth century B.C. the Kurus did not occupy the same position. They set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Merrut.

11. Panchala:

The Panchala kingdom, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun and Farukhabad lost its prominent position as in the Vedic period. Their capital was at Kampilla, perhaps modern Kampil in Farrukhabad district.

12 & 13 Surasena and Chedi:

The Surasena kingdom was south of the Matsyas with its capital at Mathura. The .kingdom of the Chedis corresponded roughly to the eastern parts of Bundelkhand and adjoining areas, and their king lists occur in the Jatakas.

Republics:

14. Vajjis:

The Vajji territory lay north of the Ganga and stretched as far as the Nepal hills. Its western limit was the river Sadanira (Gandak), which separated it from the Malla and Kosalan cities. In the east it extended up to the forests on the banks of the river Koshi and Mahananda.

The Vajji state is said to have been a confederation of eight clans (atthakula), of whom the Videhans, the Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis proper were the most important.

In all likelihood the Vajji confederation was organised after the decline and fall of the Videhan mon­archy and was a republican state in the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The most powerful of them were the Lichchhavis with their capital at Vaishali which is identical with the village of Basarh in the district of Vaishali.

15. Mallas:

The territory of the Mallas, a republican, was divided into two parts, each having its own capital. The two capital cities were Kushinara (identified with Kasia in the Gorakhpur district), and Pava (modern Padrauna). The importance of these two cities is very great in the history of Buddhism as Buddha took his last meals and was taken ill at Pava, and at Kusinara, he died.

16. Assaka:

The kingdom of Assaka (Asmaka) was situated near the river Godavari in the South, and it became commercially important in course of time. Its capital was Patlia or Potna.

In the sixth century B.C. only 4 states-Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived. The political history of India from the sixth century B.C. onwards is the history of struggles between these states for supremacy. Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful and succeeded in founding an empire.

Mahajanapada	Capital	Highlights
Kasi	Varanasi	Incorporated into Kosala by King Kansa
Kosala	Sravasti	Important cities Ayodhya, Saketa, Benares Annexed Shakya clan, whose King was Buddha’s father Buddha was born at Kapilavastu
Anga	Champa	Annexed by Bimbisara of Magadha
Magadha	Rajagriha, Pataliputra	First Buddhist Council at Pataliputra Origin of Buddhism and Jainism Origin or Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire
Vajji	Mithila	Confedration Lichchavis, Videhans, Vajjis Mahavira’s mother was a Lichchavi princess Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali
Malla	Kusinara, Pava	Followed republican form of government Buddha fell ill at Pava, died at Kusinara
Chedi	Sukti/Suktimati
Vatsa	Kausambi	Important trade centre
Kuru	Indraprastha
Panchala	Chhatravati (Ramnagar), Kampilya
Machcha	Viratanagara (Bairat)
Surasena	Mathura	King Avantiputra was among the first disciples of the Buddha
Assaka	Potana/Potali	Only Mahajanapada south of the Vindhyas Located on the banks of the Godavari Located on Dakshinapatha, road b/w Rajagriha and Paithan (central Maharashtra)
Avanti	Ujjaini	Important centre of Buddhism Located on Dakshinapatha
Gandhara	Taxila	Famous for wool (mentioned in Rig Veda) Taxila University renowned centre of learning Panini and Kautilya both from Taxila Univ. Located on the Uttarapatha Important trade centre b/w Iran and Central Asia
Kambhoja	Rajapura (Rajori)	Had Iranian and Indian affinities Well known for republican government Conquered and annexed by Persian empire

MAGADHA

o    Origin of Buddhism and Jainism

o    Origin of Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire

o    Expansion started by Bimbisara, continued by son Ajatasatru

o    Ajatasatru developed 2 new weapons to defeat Licchavis in 15 year war: catapult, covered chariot with swinging mace (like modern tank)

o    Mahapadma Nanda became ruler in 424 BCE. He is considered India’s first Empire builder

o    Alexander the Great invaded India during the reign of Dhana Nanda in 326 BCE

o    Maurya Empire established by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE

SANGAM AGE

Overview

o    Supposed to have been three Sangams, the first two in pre-history

o    The last Sangam (300 BCE – 300 CE) is usually referred to as the Sangam Age

o    Consisted of middle Chera, Chola, Pandiya kingdoms

o    Capital cities

o    Cheras: Vanchi

o    Cholas: Urayur, Kaveripattinam/Puhar

o    Pandiyas: Madurai

Sangam Literature

o    Sangam literature divided into two groups of 18 books each

o    Literature dealt with two types of issues

o    Agam: dealing with personal or human aspects such as love, relationships etc

o    Puram: dealing with other aspects of society such as customs, kingdom, war etc

o    Oldest Tamil literature currently available is the book on Tamil grammar called Tolkappiyam

o    There are five epics of the Sangam period

o    Silappathikaram: written by Ilango Adigal in the 1^st century CE

o    Manimekalai: sequel to Silappathikaram, written by Seethalai Sathanar

o    Civaka Cintamani – written by Tirukkatevar

o    Valayaapathi – work lost, details unknown

o    Kundalakesi – largely lost, details unknown

Classification of geographical regions

Different regions of the ancient Tamil country were classified based on their landscape. Each poem in the literature was associated with a particular landscape

Tamil name	Landscape
Kurinchi	Mountains
Mullai	Forest
Marutham	Plains
Neithal	Coast
Paalai	Desert

Other Highlights

o   The Grand Anicut is one of the world’s oldest dams still in active use. It was built across the Kaveri by Karikala Chola in the 2^nd century BCE

o   There was extensive trade with Rome. Main exports were pearls, gold, ivory, pepper and textiles. Main imports were glass, wine and topaz.

o   Large amounts of Roman currency have been found in Tamil Nadu, as an indicator of foreign trade

o   The Tirukkural is the book translated into the most number of languages in the world. It is a book of couplets on ethics written by Tiruvalluvar sometime between the 3^rd century BCE and 5^th century CE

Rise of Urban Centres:

Archaeologically, the sixth century B.C. marks the beginning of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) phase, which was characterised by a glossy, shining type of pottery. This phase also saw the use of iron implements and the beginning of metallic money.

After Harappan towns, the NBP phase marked the beginning of the second phase of urbanisation in India with the emergence of towns in the Middle Gangetic basin like Kausambi, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Champa, etc.

The period produced texts dealing with measurement (Sulvasutras), which presupposes writing. The peasants had to pay one-sixth of their produce as tax, which was collected directly by royal agents.

Rice was the staple cereal. Thus, the iron-ploughshare-based food producing economy pro­vided subsistence not only to direct producers but also, to many others. This made possible collection of taxes and maintenance of armies on a long term basis, and created conditions in which large territorial States could be formed and sustained.

Another factor that helped the process was the use of coins. Although literary evidences regarding the use of coins in the form of Nishka or Satamana are found, the use of coins became regular during the period of Buddha. The first coins in India, called punch marked coins, came at this time. Towards the end of this period a script was also developed.

Trade Routes:

Pali texts refer to sea-voyages and of trading journeys to the coast of Burma, the Malay world (Suvarna-bhumi), Ceylon (Tamraparni) and even to Babylon (Baveru). The principal sea-ports were Bharukachcha (Broach) Suparaka (Sopara, north of Bombay) and Tamralipti (Tamluk in West Bengal).

Of the riparian ports, Sahajati (in Central India), Kausambi on the Yamuna, Banaras, Champa and later Pataliputra on the Ganges and Pattala on the Indus, deserve special mention. The great inland routes mostly radiated from Banaras and Sravasti. The chief articles of trade were silk, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and gold.

Introduction of Coinage:

Besides others, these cities began to use coins made of metals for the first time. The earliest coins belong to the fifth century B.C. and they are called punch-marked coins. The standard unit of value was the copper Karshapana weighing a little more than 146 grains. Silver coins were also in circulation.

Economic Growth:

The period of second urbanisation (6th century B.C. to 3rd century B.C.) noticed large-scale beginning of town life in the middle Gangetic basin. The widespread use of iron tools and weapons helped the formation large of territorial states.

The towns became good markets and both artisans and merchants were organised into guilds under their respective headmen. Eighteen of the more important crafts were organised into guilds (Sreni, Puga), each of which was presided over by a Pramukha (foreman), Jyeshthaka (elder) or Sresthin (chief). Sarathavaha was the caravan-leader.

The system of barter was also prevalent. This led to localisation of crafts and industries and the emerging of artisans and merchants as important social groups.

Disappearance

In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century B.C.E., the growing state of Magadha emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry.

According to Buddhist texts, the first 14 of the Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the Kambojans and Gandharans belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa. These last two never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until the rise of the Maurya Empire in 321 B.C.E. They remained relatively isolated but were invaded by the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558-530 B.C.E.) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade (Paropamisus Greek for Hindu Kush). In 327 B.C.E. the Greeks under Alexander of Macedon overran the Punjab, but withdrew after two years, creating an opportunity for Chandragupta Maurya to step in.