A Mahājanapada (literally "great realm",
from maha,
"great", and janapada "foothold of a tribe",
"country") is one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics
that existed in ancient India from the sixth centuries BCE to fourth
centuries CE.
Ancient Buddhist
texts like the Anguttar Nikaya make frequent reference to sixteen
great kingdoms and republics which had evolved and flourished in a belt
stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian
subcontinent and
included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.
The
6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian
history. Archaeologically, this period corresponds in part to the Northern
Black Polished Ware culture.
These 16 Mahajanapads that stretched across the Indo-Gangetic
plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh in the sixth century B.C.E., prior to and during the rise
of Buddhism in India.
They represent a transition from a semi-nomadic tribal society to an
agrarian-based society with a vast network of trade and a highly-organized
political structure. Many of these “kingdoms” functioned as republics governed by a general assembly and a
council of elders led by an elected “king consul.”
The Mahajanapadas are the historical context of the Sanskrit
epics, such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as Puranic literature (the itihasa).
ORIGIN
The
political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with
semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). Early Vedic texts
speak of several Janas, or tribes, of Aryans, organized as semi-nomadic tribal states,
fighting among themselves and with other non-Aryan tribes for cattle, sheep and green pastures.
The
fact that Janapada is derived fromJana suggests the taking of land by a Jana
tribe for a settled way of life. This process of settlement on land had
completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini.
In
the Panini grammar, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each Janapada was
named after the Kshatriya tribe (or Kshatriya
Jana) who had settled there.
Tribal
identity was more significant than geographical location in defining the
territory of a Janapada, and the sparsity of the population made specific
boundary lines unimportant. Often rivers formed the boundaries of two
neighboring kingdoms, as was the case between the northern and southern
Panchala and between the western (Pandava's Kingdom) and eastern (Kaurava's
Kingdom) Kuru. Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed
boundaries, such as the Naimisha Forest between Panchala and Kosala kingdoms.
Mountain ranges like Himalaya, Vindhya and Sahya also formed boundaries.
Formation of States:
The
tribal political organisation of the Rig Vedic phase gave way to the rise of
territorial state towards the end of the Vedic period.
But the territorial idea was gradually
strengthened in the sixth century B.C. with the rise of large state with towns
as their seats of power.
Permanent settlement in a particular
area gave a geographical identity to a tribe or a group of tribes and
subsequently this identity was given concrete shape in the possession of the
area, which was generally named after the tribe. To maintain this possession
required political organization, either as a republic or a monarchy.
From the sixth century B.C. onwards,
the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar, as
evidenced from excavations at Raj ghat and Chirand, led to the formation of
large territorial states which were better equipped militarily and in which
warrior class played the main role.
New agricultural tools and implements
enabled the peasants to produce a good amount of surplus which not only met the
needs of the ruling class but also supported numerous towns. Towns came into
existence as centres of industry and trade. Some such as Shravasti, Champa,
Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Kashi and Pataliputra were of substantial
importance to the economy of the Ganges plains.
Others such as Vaishali, Ujjain,
Taxila and the port of Bharukachchha (Broach) had a wider economic reach. A
passage from Panini, makes it clear that the people owed their allegiance to
the Janapada (territory) to which they belonged and not to the Jana or the
tribe to which they belonged.
The
Mahajanapadas (Monarchies and Republics):
In the post-Vedic period, the entire
northern territory mostly situated north of the Vindhyas and extending from the
North-West frontier to Bihar was divided into sixteen states called Sodasha
Mahajanapadas. These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republican in
character.
Whereas the monarchies were
concentrated in the Gangetic Plains, the republics were ranged round the northern
periphery of these kingdoms-in the foothills of the Himalayas and just south of
these, and in north-western India in modern Punjab.
The Buddhist literature, particularly
the Anguttara Nikaya lists the sixteen mahajanapadas given as – Gandhara,
Kamboja, Assaka, Vatsa, Avanti, Surasena, Chedi, Malla, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya,
Vajji, Anga, Kosala and Magadha.
Another
Buddhist text written in Pali, Digha Nikaya ("Collection of Long
Discourses"), mentions only first 12 Mahajanapadas in this list and omits
the last four.
The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives a slightly
different list of 16 Mahajanapadas: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya,
Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji
(Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha and Sambhuttara. It is evident that
the author of Bhagvati is only interested in the countries of Madhydesa and of
the far east and south, since the nations from Uttarapatha, like the Kamboja
and Gandhara, are omitted.
Monarchies:
1.
Kashi:
With its capital as Banaras, Kashi was
at first the most powerful among the sixteen states and perhaps played an
important part in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy. Eventually it had to
submit to the power of Kosala and later annexed by Ajatasatru to Magadha.
2.
Kosala:
It embraced the area occupied by
eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its capital at Shravasti, which is identical with
Sahet – Mahet in the borders of Gonda and Bahraich districts in Uttar Pradesh.
Kosala was bounded on the west by the river Gomati, on the south by the Sarpika
or Syandika (Sai), on the east by the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it from
Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.
Ayodhya, Saketa and Shravasti were
three important Kosalan cities. Prasenjit, the Kosalan king was the
contemporary of king Bimbisara and king Ajatasatru of Magadha. Prasenjit’s
sister was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha, and Kashi was given to her
as dowry. However, a dispute with Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara through another
wife, soon led to discord. Ajatasatru put his father to death whose wife,
sister of Prasenjit, died due to grief. Prasenjit, in retaliation, confiscated
Kasi.
A war broke out with varying results
in favour of both sides. However, the conflict finally ended with
reconciliation. Prasenjit’s daughter Vajjira was married to Ajatasatru and
Kashi was given as dowry to the bride. Though Prasenjit did not embrace
Buddhism, one of the Bharhut sculptures highlights cordiality between Prasenjit
and Buddha. Finally it was annexed by Magadha during Ajatasatru’s reign after
the death of Prasenjit.
3.
Anga:
Anga in the east of Magadha roughly
corresponds to the modern districts of Monghyr and Bagalpur. Its capital
Champa, situated on the bank of the river of the same name, was noted for its
wealth and commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.
4.
Magadha:
Between Anga and Vatsa there lay the
kingdom of Magadha, corresponding to modern Patna and Gaya districts, bounded
on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the Vindhya
outcrop and on the east by the river Champa. Rajagriha or Girivraja, rendered
impregnable by a perimeter of five hills, was the Magadhan capital. The
earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came
into prominence under Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
5.
Vatsa:
The Vatsa country had a monarchical
form of government. Its capital was Kausambi (identified with the village of
Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad. Kausambi, a very prosperous city was the most
important entre pot of goods and passengers from the south and the west.
Udayana, the ruler of this country in the sixth century B.C. had to struggle
against king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king Pradyota of Avanti.
Udayana entered into a matrimonial
alliance with the king of Magadha. The ruler of Avanti invaded Kausambi and as
he was unsuccessful, he had to marry his daughter to Udayana. To begin with,
Udayana was opposed to Ruddhism, but later on he became a follower of Buddha
and made Buddhism the state religion. Later, during the reign of Palaka, Vatsa
was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.
6.
Avanti:
The state of Avanti roughly
corresponded to modern Malwa. The river Vetravati divided Avanti into north and
south. Terrirorially, it was a big kingdom and its capital was Ujjayini or
modern Ujjain. The ruler of Avanti in the time of Buddha was Chanda Pradyota.
He was a contemporary of Udayana of Kausambi. Although he was given the
nickname of Chanda on account of his ferocity, he became a convert to Buddhism.
Avanti became a very important centre
of Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was finally annexed to Magadhan Empire by
Sishunaga.
7.
Gandhara:
The state of Gandhara roughly
corresponded to modern Kashmir and extended upto the Kabul valley. Its capital
was Taxila which was a famous seat of learning where scholars came from all
over the world. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara King
Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in Magadha and went on foot to see the
Buddha. Later it formed the twentieth province of the Achaemenid Empire
(Persian) according to the Greek historian, Herodotus.
8.
Kamboja:
It was the country adjoining Gandhara
in the extreme North-West with Dwarka as its capital. A little before 530 B.C.
Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of Persia, crossed the Hindukush and received
tributes from the people of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-Indus area. During
Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed from a monarchy to a republic.
9.
Matsya:
The Matsyas were to the south of the
Kurus and west of the Yamuna. The Matsya country corresponded roughly to the
former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
10.
Kurus:
The Kuru country roughly corresponded
to the modern Delhi and the adjoining doab region. It was the most important
kingdom of the later Vedic period but during the sixth century B.C. the Kurus
did not occupy the same position. They set up their capital at Hastinapur
situated in the district of Merrut.
11.
Panchala:
The Panchala kingdom, which covered
the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun and Farukhabad lost its prominent
position as in the Vedic period. Their capital was at Kampilla, perhaps modern
Kampil in Farrukhabad district.
12
& 13 Surasena and Chedi:
The Surasena kingdom was south of the
Matsyas with its capital at Mathura. The .kingdom of the Chedis corresponded
roughly to the eastern parts of Bundelkhand and adjoining areas, and their king
lists occur in the Jatakas.
Republics:
14.
Vajjis:
The Vajji territory lay north of the
Ganga and stretched as far as the Nepal hills. Its western limit was the river
Sadanira (Gandak), which separated it from the Malla and Kosalan cities. In the
east it extended up to the forests on the banks of the river Koshi and
Mahananda.
The Vajji state is said to have been a
confederation of eight clans (atthakula), of whom the Videhans, the
Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis proper were the most important.
In all likelihood the Vajji
confederation was organised after the decline and fall of the Videhan monarchy
and was a republican state in the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The most
powerful of them were the Lichchhavis with their capital at Vaishali which is
identical with the village of Basarh in the district of Vaishali.
15.
Mallas:
The territory of the Mallas, a
republican, was divided into two parts, each having its own capital. The two
capital cities were Kushinara (identified with Kasia in the Gorakhpur
district), and Pava (modern Padrauna). The importance of these two cities is
very great in the history of Buddhism as Buddha took his last meals and was
taken ill at Pava, and at Kusinara, he died.
16.
Assaka:
The kingdom of Assaka (Asmaka) was
situated near the river Godavari in the South, and it became commercially
important in course of time. Its capital was Patlia or Potna.
In the sixth century B.C. only 4
states-Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived. The political history of
India from the sixth century B.C. onwards is the history of struggles between
these states for supremacy. Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the
most powerful and succeeded in founding an empire.
Mahajanapada
|
Capital
|
Highlights
|
Kasi
|
Varanasi
|
Incorporated
into Kosala by King Kansa
|
|
|
|
Kosala
|
Sravasti
|
Important
cities Ayodhya, Saketa, Benares
Annexed Shakya
clan, whose King was Buddha’s father
Buddha was
born at Kapilavastu
|
|
|
|
Anga
|
Champa
|
Annexed by
Bimbisara of Magadha
|
|
|
|
Magadha
|
Rajagriha,
Pataliputra
|
First Buddhist
Council at Pataliputra
Origin of
Buddhism and Jainism
Origin or
Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire
|
|
|
|
Vajji
|
Mithila
|
Confedration
Lichchavis, Videhans, Vajjis
Mahavira’s
mother was a Lichchavi princess
Second
Buddhist Council at Vaishali
|
|
|
|
Malla
|
Kusinara, Pava
|
Followed
republican form of government
Buddha fell
ill at Pava, died at Kusinara
|
|
|
|
Chedi
|
Sukti/Suktimati
|
|
|
|
|
Vatsa
|
Kausambi
|
Important
trade centre
|
|
|
|
Kuru
|
Indraprastha
|
|
|
|
|
Panchala
|
Chhatravati
(Ramnagar), Kampilya
|
|
|
|
|
Machcha
|
Viratanagara
(Bairat)
|
|
|
|
|
Surasena
|
Mathura
|
King
Avantiputra was among the first disciples of the Buddha
|
|
|
|
Assaka
|
Potana/Potali
|
Only
Mahajanapada south of the Vindhyas
Located on the
banks of the Godavari
Located on
Dakshinapatha, road b/w Rajagriha and Paithan (central Maharashtra)
|
|
|
|
Avanti
|
Ujjaini
|
Important
centre of Buddhism
Located on
Dakshinapatha
|
|
|
|
Gandhara
|
Taxila
|
Famous for
wool (mentioned in Rig Veda)
Taxila
University renowned centre of learning
Panini and
Kautilya both from Taxila Univ.
Located on the
Uttarapatha
Important
trade centre b/w Iran and Central Asia
|
|
|
|
Kambhoja
|
Rajapura
(Rajori)
|
Had Iranian
and Indian affinities
Well known for
republican government
Conquered and
annexed by Persian empire
|
MAGADHA
o
Origin of Buddhism and Jainism
o
Origin of Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire
o
Expansion started by Bimbisara, continued by son Ajatasatru
o
Ajatasatru developed 2 new weapons to defeat Licchavis in 15 year war:
catapult, covered chariot with swinging mace (like modern tank)
o
Mahapadma Nanda became ruler in 424 BCE. He is considered India’s first
Empire builder
o
Alexander the Great invaded India during the reign
of Dhana Nanda in 326 BCE
o
Maurya Empire established by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE
SANGAM
AGE
Overview
o
Supposed to have been three Sangams, the first two in pre-history
o
The last Sangam (300 BCE – 300 CE) is usually referred to as the Sangam
Age
o
Consisted of middle Chera, Chola, Pandiya kingdoms
o
Capital cities
o
Cheras: Vanchi
o
Cholas: Urayur, Kaveripattinam/Puhar
o
Pandiyas: Madurai
Sangam
Literature
o
Sangam literature divided into two groups of 18 books each
o
Literature dealt with two types of issues
o
Agam: dealing with personal or human aspects such as love, relationships
etc
o
Puram: dealing with other aspects of society such as customs, kingdom,
war etc
o
Oldest Tamil literature currently available is the
book on Tamil grammar called Tolkappiyam
o
There are five epics of the Sangam period
o
Silappathikaram: written by Ilango Adigal in the 1st century
CE
o
Manimekalai: sequel to Silappathikaram, written by Seethalai Sathanar
o
Civaka Cintamani – written by Tirukkatevar
o
Valayaapathi – work lost, details unknown
o
Kundalakesi – largely lost, details unknown
Classification
of geographical regions
Different regions
of the ancient Tamil country were classified based on their landscape. Each
poem in the literature was associated with a particular landscape
Tamil name
|
Landscape
|
Kurinchi
|
Mountains
|
|
|
Mullai
|
Forest
|
|
|
Marutham
|
Plains
|
|
|
Neithal
|
Coast
|
|
|
Paalai
|
Desert
|
Other
Highlights
o
The Grand Anicut is one of the world’s oldest dams
still in active use. It was built across the Kaveri by Karikala Chola in
the 2nd century BCE
o
There was extensive trade with Rome. Main exports were pearls, gold,
ivory, pepper and textiles. Main imports were glass, wine and topaz.
o
Large amounts of Roman currency have been found in Tamil Nadu, as an
indicator of foreign trade
o
The Tirukkural is the book translated into the most
number of languages in the world. It is a book of couplets on ethics
written by Tiruvalluvar sometime between the 3rd century BCE
and 5th century CE
Rise
of Urban Centres:
Archaeologically, the sixth century
B.C. marks the beginning of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) phase, which was
characterised by a glossy, shining type of pottery. This phase also saw the use
of iron implements and the beginning of metallic money.
After Harappan towns, the NBP phase
marked the beginning of the second phase of urbanisation in India with the
emergence of towns in the Middle Gangetic basin like Kausambi, Sravasti,
Ayodhya, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Champa, etc.
The period produced texts dealing with
measurement (Sulvasutras), which presupposes writing. The peasants had to pay
one-sixth of their produce as tax, which was collected directly by royal
agents.
Rice was the staple cereal. Thus, the
iron-ploughshare-based food producing economy provided subsistence not only to
direct producers but also, to many others. This made possible collection of
taxes and maintenance of armies on a long term basis, and created conditions in
which large territorial States could be formed and sustained.
Another factor that helped the process
was the use of coins. Although literary evidences regarding the use of coins in
the form of Nishka or Satamana are found, the use of coins
became regular during the period of Buddha. The first coins in India, called
punch marked coins, came at this time. Towards the end of this period a script
was also developed.
Trade
Routes:
Pali texts refer to sea-voyages and of
trading journeys to the coast of Burma, the Malay world (Suvarna-bhumi), Ceylon
(Tamraparni) and even to Babylon (Baveru). The principal sea-ports were
Bharukachcha (Broach) Suparaka (Sopara, north of Bombay) and Tamralipti (Tamluk
in West Bengal).
Of the riparian ports, Sahajati (in
Central India), Kausambi on the Yamuna, Banaras, Champa and later Pataliputra
on the Ganges and Pattala on the Indus, deserve special mention. The great
inland routes mostly radiated from Banaras and Sravasti. The chief articles of
trade were silk, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and gold.
Introduction
of Coinage:
Besides others, these cities began to
use coins made of metals for the first time. The earliest coins belong to the
fifth century B.C. and they are called punch-marked coins. The standard unit of
value was the copper Karshapana weighing a little more than 146 grains. Silver
coins were also in circulation.
Economic
Growth:
The period of second urbanisation (6th
century B.C. to 3rd century B.C.) noticed large-scale beginning of town life in
the middle Gangetic basin. The widespread use of iron tools and weapons helped
the formation large of territorial states.
The towns became good markets and both artisans and
merchants were organised into guilds under their respective headmen. Eighteen
of the more important crafts were organised into guilds (Sreni, Puga), each of
which was presided over by a Pramukha (foreman), Jyeshthaka (elder) or Sresthin
(chief). Sarathavaha was the caravan-leader.
The system of barter was also
prevalent. This led to localisation of crafts and industries and the emerging
of artisans and merchants as important social groups.
Disappearance
In
a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century B.C.E., the growing state of Magadha emerged as the most predominant power
in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A
bitter line in the Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor
Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya
being left thereafter. This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus,
Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom
nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry.
According
to Buddhist texts, the first 14 of the Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the Kambojans and Gandharans
belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa. These last two
never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until the rise of the Maurya Empire in
321 B.C.E. They remained relatively isolated but
were invaded by the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558-530 B.C.E.) or in the first year of
Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of
Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city
called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade (Paropamisus Greek for Hindu Kush). In 327 B.C.E. the Greeks under Alexander
of Macedon overran
the Punjab, but withdrew after two years, creating an opportunity for Chandragupta
Maurya to
step in.
